Key differences between IPC and CrPC

As citizens of India, it is important to be well versed with the laws of our country, more so, when it comes to society at large. The criminal laws impact not just individuals but the entire society. The Indian Penal Code (IPC) and the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC) are two of the most important legislation governing crimes in India. Besides these, the Indian Evidence Act, 1872 is the third legislation under criminal law in India.

The Indian Penal Code (IPC)

The Indian Penal Code is the official criminal code of India, which was drafted way back in 1860. It’s objective is to provide a general penal code for the country. It has 511 sections across 23 chapters, providing the list of crimes along with their definitions and punishments. The IPC has been amended several times and is now supplemented by other Acts. Its jurisdiction extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir.

Here is the detailed overview of the important provisions of the CrPC –

• Chapter 1 – Introduction (Section 1 – 5)
• Chapter 2 – General Explanations (Section 6 – 52A)
• Chapter 3 – Of punishments (Section 53 -75)
• Chapter 4 – General Exceptions (Section 76 – 106)
• Chapter 5 – Of Abetment (Section 107 – 120)
• Chapter 5A – Of Criminal Conspiracy (Section 120A and 120B)
• Chapter 6 – Of offenses against the State (Section 121 – 130)
• Chapter 7 – Of offences relating to the army, navy and air force (Section 131 – 140)
• Chapter 8 – Of offences against the public tranquillity (Section 141 – 160)
• Chapter 9A – Of offences relating to elections (Section 171A – Section 171I)
• Chapter 10 – Of contempts of the lawful authority of public servants (Section 172 – 190)
• Chapter 11 – Of false evidence and offences against public justice (Section 191 – 229)
• Chapter 12 – Of offences relating to coin and government stamps (Section 230 – 263A)
• Chapter 13 – Of offences relating To weights and measures (Section 264 – 267)
• Chapter 14 – Of Offences Affecting The Public Health, Safety, Convenience, Decency And Morals (Section 268 – 294A)
• Chapter 15 – Of Offences Relating To Religion (Section 295 – 298)
• Chapter 16 – Of Offences Affecting The Human Body (Section 299 – 377)
• Chapter 17 – Of Offences Against Property (Section 378 – 462)
• Chapter 18 – Of Offences Relating To Documents And To Property Marks (Section 463 – 489E)
• Chapter 19 – Of The Criminal Breach Of Contracts Of Service (Section 490 – 492)
• Chapter 20 – Of Offences Relating To Marriage (Section 493 – 498)
• Chapter 20A – Of Cruelty By Husband Or Relatives Of Husband (Section 498A)
• Chapter 21 – Of Defamation (Section 499 – 502)
• Chapter 22 – Of Criminal Intimidation, Insult And Annoyance (Section 503 – 510)
• Chapter 23 – Of Attempts To Commit Offences (Section 511)

The Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC) –

The Code of Criminal Procedure is the main legislation on the procedure for the regulation of criminal law in India. The CrPC details the procedure for the investigation of the crime, presenting criminals before the court of law, collection of evidence, determination of guilt or innocence of the accused, imposition of penalties or punishments etc. It further lays down the hierarchy of the courts competent to try criminal lawsuits. In descending order it is the High Court at the top followed by Sessions Court, First Class Judicial Magistrate, Second Class Judicial Magistrate and Executive Magistrate. There is a limit affixed for sentences which these courts can pass against the accused. The Supreme Court is the apex court, and it has the ultimate power. The code was enacted in 1973. At present, the CrPC contains 484 sections cut across 37 chapters. It also has two schedules and 56 forms.

Here is the detailed overview of the important provisions of the CrPC –

• Chapter 1 – Preliminary (Section 1 – 5)
• Chapter 2 – Constitution of Criminal Courts and Offices (Section 6 – 25)
• Chapter 3 – Power of Courts (Section 26 – 35)
• Chapter 4 – Powers of Superior Officers of Police (Section 36 – 40)
• Chapter 5 – Arrest of Persons (Section 41 – 60)
• Chapter 6 – Processes to compel Appearance (Section 61 – 90)
• Chapter 13 – Jurisdiction of the Criminal Courts in inquiries and trials (Section 177 – 189)
• Chapter 14 – Conditions requisite for initiation of proceeding (Section 190 – 199)
• Chapter 15 – Complaints to Magistrates (Section 200 – 203)
• Chapter 16 – Commencement of proceedings before magistrates (Section 204 – 210)
• Chapter 17 – The Charge (Section 211 – 224)
• Chapter 18 – Trail before a court of session (Section 225 -237)
• Chapter 19 – Trial of warrant-cases by magistrates (Section 238 – 250)
• Chapter 20 – Trial of summons-cases by magistrates (Section 251 – 259)
• Chapter 21 – Summary Trials (Section 260 – 265)
• Chapter 22 – Attendance of persons confined or detained in prisons (Section 266 – 271)
• Chapter 23 – Evidence in inquiries and trials (Section 272 – 299)
• Chapter 24 – General provisions as to inquiries and trials (Section 300 – 327)
• Chapter 25 – Provisions as to accused persons of unsound mind (Section 328 – 339)
• Chapter 26 – Provisions as to offences affecting the administration of justice ( Section 340 – 352)
• Chapter 27 – The Judgement (Section 353 – 365)
• Chapter 28 – Submission of death sentences for confirmation (Section 366 – 371)
• Chapter 29 – Appeals (Section 372 – 394)
• Chapter 30 – Reference and Revision (Section 395 – 405)
• Chapter 31 – Transfer of criminal cases (Section 406 – 412)
• Chapter 32 – Execution, Suspension, Remission and Commutation of Sentences (Section 413 – 435)
• Chapter 33 – Provisions as to bail and bonds (Section 436 – 450)
• Chapter 34 – Disposal of Property (Section 451 – 459)
• Chapter 35 – Irregular Proceedings (Section 460 – 466)
• Chapter 36 – Limitation for taking cognizance of certain offences (Section 467 – 473)
• Chapter 37 – Miscellaneous (Section 474 – 484)

Major Difference between IPC and CrPC –

1.  The IPC provides a substantive list of all crimes and lays down the punishment for each one of them. For example, Section 378 defines Theft as “Whoever, intending to take dishonestly any moveable property out of the possession of any person without that per­son’s consent, moves that property in order to such taking, is said to commit theft.” The punishment for the offence of theft is spelt out under Section 379 in the following words, “Whoever commits theft shall be pun­ished with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to three years, or with fine, or with both.” On the other hand, CrPC is a procedural law, and it lays down the ways or methods to be followed in a criminal case. So if a person is charged with ‘theft’, it is the CrPC which provides further details as to how the investigation would be carried out, how evidence will be collected etc. So CrPC concerns itself with the procedural aspect of the crime.
2. The primary purpose of IPC is to provide a general penal code for India which prescribes punishments to wrong-doers. The primary goal of CrPC is to consolidate the criminal law in the country.
3. The Indian Penal Code is a substantive law whereas, the Code of Criminal Procedure is procedural law.

CONCLUSION –

The Indian Penal Code, Code of Criminal Procedure and the Indian Evidence Act are the three primary legislation governing criminal law in India. They continue to play an important role in the court of law for the effective administration of justice. Besides, there are other legislations such as the Prohibition of Child Trafficking Act, the Juvenile Justice Act, which supplement the three main legislation. Both the IPC and the CrPC are pan-India in nature and extend to the whole of the State. Jammu and Kashmir are beyond their jurisdiction. IPC is the only substantive law here, and the Indian Evidence Act and the CrPC are the procedural laws.

10 Doubts About Private Limited Company Need To Know About Companies Act 2013 You Should Clarify

Introduction To Companies Act 2013

The term ‘company’ implies an association of a number of persons for some common object or objects. In fact, the purposes for which people may wish to associate are multifarious. But companies act 2013 where the term ‘company’ normally refers to the associations for economic purpose i.e., to carry on a business.

In legal terminology, a company means a company incorporated or registered under ‘the Company Act, 2013’ or under any of the other Companies legislation.[i] In its legal form, the law creates an artificial entity i.e. a company. It has a separate identity independent of its members.
Hence, This artificial legal person like any other ordinary human being:

• has many rights and
• incurs many liabilities.

Basically, Companies are of various types such as:

• One Person Company (OPC)
• Private Limited Company
• Public Limited Company[ii]
• Company Without Share Capital (Charitable Company).[iii]

Aforesaid first three types of company are private in its nature. Means they are a private company while the ‘public limited company’ is not a private company.

A company is registered initially as a private company may be converted into a public company. Such conversion may be by choice, or by default or by operation of law.[iv]

However, the conversion of a company does not affect the legal identity of the company.

Meaning of Private Limited Company

As per Section 2(68) of the Companies Act, 2013, “private company” means a company having a minimum paid-up share capital of one lakh rupees or such higher paid-up share capital as may be prescribed and by its article

(a) restricts the right to transfer its share;

(b) limits the number of its members to two hundred; and

(c) prohibits any invitations to the public to subscribe for any shares in, or debentures of, the company.

However, After the 2015 amendment of Companies Act, the restriction of minimum capital requirement is waived off for all types of companies.

Let us now discuss the implications of each of these restrictions on the company i.e Private Limited Company.

Restriction on the right of members to transfer their shares

The articles of association(AoA) of a private company must specifically have a provision restricting the right of the members to transfer their shares. It means that the shares of a private company are not as freely transferable as those of the public companies. But it does not mean that the shares of a private company cannot be transferred at all. Further, the AoA generally provide that whenever a member of a private company desires to transfer his shares, he must offer them to the existing members at a price to be determined by the directors.

Restriction on the maximum number of members

A private limited company is also required to limit the maximum number of its members to two hundred. It means that the number of members in a private company can be between two and two hundred.

While counting the members, the following are not to be included:
i) persons who are in the employment of the company and by virtue of their employees happen to be members of the company, and
ii) persons, who, having been in the employment of the company, were members of the company while in that employment and have continued to be members after the employment ceased.

Where two or more persons hold one or more shares of the company jointly, they shall be treated as a single member for the purpose of counting the number.

Prohibition on the invitation to the public

This restriction implies that a private limited company must not issue a prospectus or any other public invitation, directly or indirectly to the general public so as to invite them to invest in its shares or debentures.

The public may include any section of the public whether selected as members or the debenture holders of the company or as customers of the person issuing the prospectus, or in any other manner.

In simple words, it means that a private company cannot issue an invitation to the public. It has to make its own private arrangement to raise its capital.

[i] S. 2(20) of Companies Act, 2013.

[ii] S. 3 of Companies Act, 2013.

[iii] S. 8(1) & (2) of Companies Act, 2013.

[iv] S. 14(1) of Companies Act, 2013.

[v] S. 4(1)(a) of Companies Act, 2013.

5 Things You Needs To Know About 2018 Amendment To The Companies Act, 2013 These Companies Act Is Effective From 7th May 2018

These companies amendment act is effective from 7^th May 2018.

1. Changes in section 2 (Definition) under Companies amendment Act

• Associate Company (S. 2(6)): “significant influence” shall now be mean control of at least 20 percent of the Total voting powers (earlier it was total share capital) or control of or participation in business decisions under an agreement. Joint Venture: Earlier joint venture was not defined. Now Joint venture is defined as a joint arrangement whereby the parties that have joint control of the arrangement have rights to the net assets of the arrangement;
• Subsidiary Company (S. 2(87)): the exercise or control of more than one-half of the total voting power (earlier share capital).

2. Insertion of Section 3 in Companies amendment Act –A: If at any time the number of members in a company is reduced below the requisite level (7 for a public company and 2 for private company) and the company carries on business for more than six months, then after six months, each member shall be severally liable for the whole debt of the company contracted during that time.
3. Section 12 (Registered office of the Company) in the Companies Amendment Act: Earlier the time limit to have a registered office was before the fifteenth day of its incorporation. Now the time limit is within thirty days of its incorporation.
4. Prospectus (Section 26) in Companies amendment Act: SEBI in consultation with Central Government is empowered to prescribe the contents of the prospectus. Clause a, b, c is omitted (Name, Address of the registered office, opening and closing of the issues, capital structure and auditor’s report on profits/losses need not be provided)
5. Private Placement (Section 42) under Companies amendment Act:
6. A company can make a private placement of securities.
7. PP can be made only to a selected group of people who have been identified by the board, and such person shall not be more than 50.
8. Section 54 (Sweat Equity Shares) under the Companies Amendment Act: Now the companies are permitted to issue sweat equity shares within the period of one year from the commencement of business.
9. Section 77 and Section 78 (registration of charges): The amendment does not require registration of such charges as may be prescribed in consultation with the RBI.
10. Section 90 (Significant Beneficial owner of the company): the person who is the significant beneficial owner has to give a declaration to the company. The person alone or together, or through person or persons have a beneficial interest of not less than 25 % shall be considered of having a beneficial interest in the company. This provision will be applicable to all the companies and the company has to register them as a significant beneficial owner.
11. Section 92 (Annual Returns) under Companies amendment Act: The central Government is now empowered to prescribe a form of Annual Return. It is now mandatory for the company to provide for the entire annual report on the website of the company. Section 93 omitted so now the registrar need not be informed when the stake of promoter’s change.
12. Section 96 (Annual General Meeting): For unlisted Companies, the Annual General Meeting can be held anywhere in India with the consent of all members either in written or electronic mode in advance.
13. Section 100 (EGM): The wholly-owned subsidiary of a company incorporated outside India has been allowed to hold its extraordinary general meeting outside India. Such Companies or subsidiaries can hold EGM at any place where they want in the world.
14. Section 101: Now a meeting can be commenced with a shorter notice period if 95% of voting power consents to such notice.
15. Section 123 (Declaration of Dividend): The BoD may declare interim dividend during any financial year at any time during the period from closure of financial year till holding of any of annual general meeting out from surplus in profit & loss account or else out from profits of fiscal or the financial year for which such dividend (interim) is required to be stated or out from the profits generated in such financial year until quarter prior the date of declaration of the dividend.

Read Also: All About Companies Act 2013

Final Dividend:  Any time through the period from closing of financial year till the holding of next annual general meeting out from surplus in profit & loss account or out from profits of fiscal or financial year for which such dividend is required to be stated or out from profits made in such said financial year until the quarter prior the date of declaration of the dividend.

14. Section 129 (Financial Statement): The consolidated financial statement of the company, its subsidiaries and associates should be in accordance with the applicable accounting standards and be laid before the Annual General Meeting.
15. Section 130 (Re-opening of books of Accounts): Re-opening of books of accounts is limited to 8 financial years immediately preceding the current financial year. The order for reopening of accounts can be made up to eight years unless there is a specific direction under section 128(5) from the Central Government for a longer period.
16. Section 136 (Audited Financial Statement): Amendment to sub-section (1) of section 136 provides that the copies of audited financial statements and other documents may be sent even with a shorter notice period if the same is agreed upon by ninety-five percent of the members entitled to cast their votes.
17. Section 139 (Appointment of Auditors): An auditor appointed for a period of five years need not be ratified every year at the AGM. Non-Compliance of the auditor to the terms the fine is either 50,000 or the amount received by the auditor whichever is lower. (Section 140). Contravention to the provision of 139 by the company, is 25,000 and may increase to 5 lakh Rupees or four times the remuneration of an auditor, whichever is lower.
18. Section 149 (Board of Directors): For resident Director, the director needs to stay in the country for 182 days in the previous financial year (Earlier previous calendar year).

Read Also: Section 185 of Companies Act 2013

Independent Director: the pecuniary relationship is now substituted “pecuniary relationship, other than remuneration as such director or having transaction not exceeding ten percent of the persons’ total income in all or such sum as to be agreed upon,” shall be thus substituted;

19. Section 160 (Retiring directors and directorship) under Companies amendment Act: The necessity to deposit a number of rupees one (1) Lakh w.r.t. recommendation or nomination of the directors shall not be pertinent in the situation where the case is of appointing an independent director/directors or the directors that are nominated through the nomination and remuneration committee.
20. Section 164 (Disqualification of a director): In case the Company has defaulted on the grounds of non-filing of the financial statement or failure to repay the interest after the due dates, then the director newly appointed shall not incur any liability for a period of six months from the date of appointment.

Disqualified on the ground of conviction: If a person is disqualified for a conviction for any offense, even if an appeal is preferred against the order of conviction, it shall still serve as a ground for conviction.

21. Section 167 (vacation of Director): If a director is disqualified for not filing the financial Statements or failure in repayment of dues, the office of the director shall become vacant in all the companies, other than the company which is in default under that sub-section.

Vacation need not be carried out: If conviction is for less than 30 days or where an appeal or petition is preferred within thirty days as aforesaid against the conviction resulting in sentence or order, only until the expiration of the period of seven (7) days since the date when any such petition or appeal has been disposed of; or elsewhere any similar further petition or appeal is chosen in opposition to the sentence or order within a period of seven (7) days, awaiting such additional further appeal or petition is disposed of.”.

22. Section 168 (Resignation of Director): Earlier it was mandatory for the resigning director to file a form with a detailed reason of resignation within 30 days. Now, this provision is made optional.